The Difficulties Single Fathers Face

The Difficulties Single Fathers Face Once a famous German caricaturist and poet Wilhelm Busch (1832 1908) said that becoming a father isnt difficult, but its very difficult to become a father. This phrase can be interpreted in different ways, but at the moment it is as topical as never before, since essential social changes and shifts state the question of parenthood for men in absolutely new light. The matter is, more and more men these days find themselves single fathers, and have to face new reality, while the society is not actually ready to accept them appropriately. This problem is attracting more and more attention of public and specialists, but still there is not enough research of the matter and fathers still essentially take pains to prove their rights: single dads remain a poorly represented group in official statistics, government programmes and communities, as Sandra Gruescu (2010, p. 19) states. The topicality of the subject and its narrow presentation in scholar studies has motivated us to focus attentio n on this problem in order to find out whether single fathers really face many problems in child fostering and their personal life and what ways out there are for them to make things better. In this way the object of out research is lone parenthood and single fatherhood of London is the main subject. To move from the first to the latter we are going to use deductive method. Apart from that, as for methodology to be applied, we shall use surveying and case study in order to get information at first hand, content-analyses in order to understand what has already been found out and what the probable holes of studies are. To provide that, we shall study local, national and partly international press, official reports and local overviews. Then we shall be able to sum up theoretical and empirical data and make conclusions on what are the modern conditions for men growing children on their own. In this way, tasks we are going to undertake are the following: to study general materials on single parenthood; single out the issue of lone fathers, especially those living in London; synthesize fragments gathered and give critical summary; involve the comments of interviewees; and finally to tally up the situation. SINGLE PARENTHOOD IN TERMS AND FIGURES In this paragraph we are to find out what is single parenthood, where it takes its roots and where results in. On the whole, as for the terms, a lone parent is one who takes care of a child (or children) all on his or her own, without participation of another parent within home. Divorce or death of the spouse are among the main reasons of growing a child alone; adoption, abuse or abandonment, and artificial insemination. A parent who takes a conscious decision to grow up a child on his own from the very beginning is also called a choice parent. All in all, as calculated in 2009, there are 1.9 million sole parents in the UK. In total they bring up about three million children. By Labour Market Review (2006), cited by Charlotte Philby (2010), each forth family is a family of one parent (among them about 8-11 % are male). Among those, 13% are under 25 years of age. Those parents who stay with the child most of the time are called primary carers, and those who just visit children are called secondary carers. By statistics, more than 90 percent of primary carers in the United Kingdom are women, and it goes without saying that all the assistance from the government, tax credits and benefits are given to them. Still, as the General National Survey has shown, more than a half of single-parented households live below the poverty line. On average, it takes about 600 pounds per year to raise a child, and about 10,500 pounds to grow a child from birth till full age. CALAMITIES TO OVERCOME Except financial, there is a great number of long-term social and psychological, physical and mental health influences on both ex-spouses and children after divorce. It may be destructive or loyal, and the strength of loss depends on the extent of intimacy between children and each of the parents, on parents characteristics like age, education level, occupation and income, on relations left between parents, on visitation rights prescribed for the secondary carer, and the circumstances children grow in on the whole (Coombs, 1991). Half-abandoned children are more like to experience behavioural problems, and Augustine Kposawa (2003) adds a schedule of main consequences: higher risks of clinical depression, greater need for formal psychiatric assistance, and higher rates of suicide among men. As any other vulnerable group, sole parents receive a kind of support from the government, from non-profit organizations and on-line resources as well. These days there are more and more forums, web-sites, social networks, blogs and professional advice services where sole parents can share their problems and look for decisions together. A good example is the Gingerbread National Charity for Single Parents. The development of such programs seems to be obvious for the first sight, but in reality the issue is not so well-defined. The matter is, there is much debate over single parenthood: on the one hand, government assistance is a normal social practice. But on the other hand, it turns out that the government itself is supporting the phenomenon which is against the society itself while sole parenthood doesnt correspond to the traditional moral values and family standards; and it seems, there can be no sound society with unsound families. Thus present British Prime Minister Mr. Cameron is rather to encourage marriages by  £150 tax breaks than take care of objectionable sole parents living under the breadline (Rowling, 2010). The police of the Tories has naturally risen a good deal of criticism: Do you not think that is discrimination against someone who pays their tax bill every month, and someone who is going to find that my friend down the road who has managed to find Mr Right gets aw ay with paying less tax than I do, just because I am raising my children by myself? (Tapsfield, 2009 p. 15). Single parents are pushed to feel second-class. But why are we now there? Through the 20th century the amount of households with single parent was rather low, but during last three decades figures began to grow rapidly. Basically, these changes have their historical, social and demographic reasons. Firstly, women began to feel more confident in their rights and freedoms, and more and more of them came to the conclusion that living on their own has more advantages than living in an unhappy wedlock. They began to receive more support from the official structures and the attitude of the society became not as reprehensible as it used to be. Fresh figures show that 57 per cent choose the single life as they say it is more rewarding, Steve Doughty (2010, p. 30) writes. Meanwhile the civilized world has been experiencing crucial shifts in gender social roles. More and more women prefer career to family and under the tension of business life more and more women are loosing their maternal instinct while paternal one on the contrary has been gaining force. FATHERS IN THE MIDDLE Now we are to sharpen our attention at a narrower group presented by sole fathers. It was investigated that more than 3 million men are classed as economically inactive, living on benefits or the black economy (Arendell, 1995 p. 112). It is also an example of social changes, but still many of men either successful or not very face obligation and will to be primary carers for their children: Active involvement in the day-to-day lives of children is no longer the exclusive domain of mothers. Fathers are being encouraged to build closer interpersonal relationships with their children. As a result, many fathers have found that being a parent is richly rewarding and they are not willing to assume the role of weekend father just because a marriage relationship has soured (Bartz and Witcher, 1978 p. 2). According to the statistics, family heads are divorced or separated fathers (8.4 per cent), never-married fathers (1.5 per cent), and widowers (0.9 per cent). In the United Kingdom there are 210,000 male sole parents (8-11 %) rising up 280,000 dependent children. In London specifically, by National Statistics (2006), there are 16,473 households headed by single males. In other words, each ninth single parent is father. Meanwhile there are 180,366 male secondary cares also identified as absent fathers. In the borough alone there are 5,710 households headed by single parents with 934 children living with their fathers (Ehrlich, 2008). SPECIFIC DIFFICULTIES FACED BY SINGLE FATHERS It goes without saying that lone fathers face generally the same problems as lone mothers, but there are some particular troubles too. First and foremost, it is already difficult to prove their right on the child, as courts traditionally favour mothers. And even if men win, their exes often dont leave them in peace, as they are more natural to be with a kid. The society has much less trust and approval for men. Nevertheless, men can be essential for developing language skills, developing awareness of rules and boundaries and being a positive male role model in the childs life (Risman, 1986 p. 96). Further on, it is considered that financial problems are less spread among men, but in fact they receive much less flexibility at their workplace and face negative attitude of supervisory. They are taken as awkward while it is not commonly for fathers to be so involved and faithful. Meanwhile is the most important thing for a child, his or her love cant be bought with money, therefore a lone father has to balance between financial obligations and emotional relations. If they go straight back to work, theyre treated like bad parents; if they dont, theyre called benefit scroungers, Jane Ahrends explains (Philby, 2010 p. 15). Moreover, it is not a secret for a father that a child needs a woman to see a female behavioural model and to provide care, but it is rather hard for a lone father to get married again: a woman is likely to avoid a man with children, as their mother is often there too; maybe, the girl doesnt like children at all or wants to have her own first and better to share all those first experiences with her husband; she doesnt want to be initially judged as a mother and she doesnt want to share her husbands attention with someone else (Miller, 2007). Yet, for sole fathers on the first place are the problems with their exes with whom, for the sake of their children, they should co-work effectively despite all misunderstanding. Then, what is even more striking, sole fathers should be ready to cope with emotional distress of children who can have low self-esteem, feel different from others and consequently have problems with socialization. Especially it is hard when a man fosters a girl. He should keep his healthy guides status and escape equality in order to keep balance. Its easy to become angry and depressed when loving and committed fathers have to prove they are just that, Peter Ehrlich (2008, p. 18) admits. THE MEANS TO WITHSTAND In fact, there are special support groups for those who bring their children alone no matter female or male. But certainly there are more women who into the bargain feel more natural and free to express their feelings and emotions. For most of men that method is not available. Versus the indifference of the officials, single fathers are now actively uniting their forces. And one of especially active representatives of this social group, William McGranaghan has recently organized a special service Dads House within the project Homes for Families and Fathers (Hoff) specially for their companions-in-arms where they can get in touch, spend time with their offspring and acquire some useful skills like cooking. By summer 2010 it has had already 1,400 active members. There are other support groups as well, e.g. the one of Pete Wrighton, where men learn to talk and to be honest. CONCLUSION So, the things are not as bad as they may seem on the face of it. However, we have found out that the topic strongly needs further consideration. The attention of employers and officials should be attracted to the issue, and social stereotypes should be discarded gradually. On the one hand, it is hard to disagree with the governmental policy intended to encourage healthy family structures which seem to be more reliable and stable. But the matter is, that is a deceptive impression to date, and, if accepted and assisted, lone fathers are able to bring up much healthier, much happier and much more perspective citizens of future, than two-parented, but unhappy and destructive families where a child receives no care but copies wrong behavioural models. These issues should be deeply learnt by family psychologists and scholars as well. All in all, single fathers problems in todays London are many, and they should be thoroughly examined by sociologists, demographers, psychologists and pedago gues. In that way they are possible to be solved and unloaded.

Charles Dickens and Samuel Clemens :: essays research papers fc

Charles Dickens and Samuel Clemens (1812-1870)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  (1835-1910) Charles Dickens and Samuel Clemens lived in different parts of the world, England and America. Charles Dickens was twenty-three years old when Samuel Clemens was born. Charles Dickens was a boy who loved learning, while Samuel Clemens could hardly wait for school to end. Despite the fact that both authors reference Christianity and its customs, historians believe that Charles Dickens was a Christian whereas Samuel Clemens was not. The similarities between Charles Dickens and Samuel Clemens are numerous. Both authors are world famous legends who wrote many novels, created many characters, had an autobiographical character, and based characters on people in their lives. Samuel Clemens used the pen name Mark Twain and Charles Dickens, for a brief time, used the pen name Boz. Both authors worked as journalists and wrote until the day they died. Their life experiences were reflected in their writings and the period in which they wrote was merely an account of what was really happening in history. England in the early years of the seventeenth century enjoyed the regency of the Prince of Wales, went to war with the United States and watched Napoleon’s final defeat at the Battle of Waterloo. During this time, one of the world’s greatest morally and socially responsible novelists, Charles Dickens was born in Portsea, England in 1812. Charles was the second child and the oldest son of John and Elizabeth Dickens. Charles’ early years were happy especially during the ages of 5-9. He loved school, was imaginative and had a hunger for reading. Charles Dickens: A Literary Life page 47 describes the collection of books in the attic that Charles would read as if it were a matter of life or death. Don Quixote, Robinson Crusoe, Arabian Nights and The Tales of the Genii, was reading material not suitable for a child, yet all of these stories influenced the novels Dickens would eventually write. His father was a clerk in the Navy Pay Office. Charles had a carefree life. He and his friends wore white beaver hats and called themselves Giles’ Cats. His parents had many parties and invited many friends, but the problem was that they spent more money than they had. By the time Charles was ten his family had lived in six different houses and each one was poorer and poorer than the one before. There were eight children and the family fell deeper and deeper into debt.

95 theses

Luther's Theses Against the Church Martin Luther was a Theologian who was on his way to becoming a lawyer until an event that altered his life. In July 1505, Luther was caught in a terrible thunderstorm where he genuinely feared he may die. During the storm, he cried out to St. Anne, the patron saint of miners and said â€Å"Save me, St. Anne, and I'll become a monk! â€Å". (A;E Networks 1) When he told his parents of his decision, his father was deeply disappointed in him.Luther also was driven by the wrath of God and felt as if his decision would help him gain salvation. When Luther finally realized that the answer to spiritual salvation was not to fear God or religious dogmas, but that faith alone would bring salvation. After hearing of Pope Leo the 10th's new round of indulgences in order to help pay for building St. Peter's Basilica in 1517, Luther had had enough. On October 31, 1517, Martin Luther nailed his 95 theses to the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg.The theses listed many critiques of the Catholic Church, such as the corruption of the Church through the indulgences and taking money from the poor to construct buildings. Copies of the 95 theses were spread throughout Europe within two months of being nailed to the door on the Castle Church, in large thanks to the invention of the printing press. In Luther's 82nd these, he talks about the church's indulgences and how immoral it is. He asks â€Å"Why does not the pope liberate everyone from purgatory for the sake of love and because of the supreme necessity of their souls? . In that, he is saying that the pope should let everyone into heaven and not have to wait in purgatory, and not have to pay an indulgence to the church. He also mentions that the money is a much perishable thing and that the building of St. Peter's Basilica is such a minor purpose, and gets away from the ideals of the early Catholic Church which were that you should not have many possessions and give to the less fortunat e whenever you can.The church's view on indulgences, which were certificates that were produced in bulk and been pre-signed by the pope, were that they gave you access to heaven by pardoning your sins or your relative's sins who had already died and could not purchase one themselves. The money gained from the indulgences were put to constructing new churches and buildings to praise Jesus Christ. The Church also said by doing this, you were committing a Christian act and this would get you closer to God.In Luther's 86th these, he talks about how the church is getting away from the basics of the early teachings of having very little and giving away most of its possessions. He says â€Å"Since the pope's income to-day is larger than that of the wealthiest of wealthy men, why does he not build this one church of St. Peter†¦ rather han with the money of indigent believers? â€Å". From this quote, he is saying that the rich should not be getting richer trom the money ot the poor, like the Baurys Pope is from his poor believers, who should be the ones getting extra money to help them live.The view the Church took of indulgences were that they helped fund the church's expenditures and that the indulgences helped people bypass purgatory and go straight to heaven. Martin Luther's 52nd these, he talks about how you cannot rely on the pope himself even though you have a letter of indulgence. Luther is saying that the letters of indulgences are nothing more than a piece of paper and have no more value to them than the paper they are written on.Another interpretation of this these would be that you have to rely on your faith and not an indulgence to get yourself into heaven. The church told anyone that bought an indulgence was promised entry into heaven, regardless of their faith. In the 6th these, Luther tells how the pope can't remit any guilt himself, but only can be only be a middleman from God to tell people that their sins are forgiven. The only power that the pope has is that he can remit sins in cases reserved to his discretion.In this these specifically, Luther is saying that the pope is not the highest authority of power but is only a facilitator for God on Earth, and in this show that the pope could not do what only God could do, mainly guarantee rights into heaven. Martin Luther with his 95 theses wanted to bring a debate about certain ideas that were prevalent in the church at that time. He noticed people in his own parish had stop coming to Baurys 3 hurch because they believed their indulgences guaranteed them access into heaven, no matter how bad of a life they lived, or how often they came to church.Luther wanted to bring reform to the church and show mainly poor people that they did not have to give away a majority of their money to the church for material gain for the church. Also, he wanted to the poorer people that they could live with good faith and still get into heaven without living in complete poverty.

History of the Inca Empire

The Inca Empire was the largest prehispanic society of South America when it was discovered by the Spanish conquistadors led by Francisco Pizarro in the 16th century AD. At its height, the Inca empire controlled all of the western part of the South American continent between Ecuador and Chile. The Inca capital was at Cusco, Peru, and the Inca legends claimed they were descended from the great Tiwanaku civilization at Lake Titicaca. Origins Archaeologist Gordon McEwan has built an extensive study of archaeological, ethnographic, and historical sources of information on the Inca origins. Based on that, he believes that the Inca arose from the remnants of the Wari Empire based at the site of Chokepukio, a regional center built about AD 1000. An influx of refugees from Tiwanaku arrived there from the Lake Titicaca region about AD 1100. McEwan argues that Chokepukio may be the town of Tambo Tocco, reported in Inca legends as the originating town of the Inca and that Cusco was founded from that city. See his 2006 book, The Incas: New Perspectives for more detail on this interesting study. In a 2008 article, Alan Covey argued that although the Inca arose from the Wari and Tiwanaku state roots, they succeeded as an empire—compared to the contemporary Chimà º State,  because the Inca adapted to regional environments and with local ideologies. The Inca began their expansion from Cusco about 1250 AD or so, and before the conquest in 1532 they controlled a linear stretch of some 4,000 kilometers, including nearly one million square kilometers in area and over 100 different societies in coastal regions, pampas, mountains, and forests. Estimates for the total population under Incan control range between six and nine million persons. Their empire included land in what are the modern countries of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina. Architecture and Economics To control such a huge area, the Incas built roads, including both mountainous and coastal routes. One existing fragment of the road between Cusco and the palace of Machu Picchu is called the Inca Trail. The amount of control exercised by Cusco over the rest of the empire varied from place to place, as might be expected for such a huge empire. Tribute paid to the Inca rulers came from farmers of cotton, potatoes, and maize, herders of alpacas and llamas, and craft specialists who made polychrome pottery, brewed beer from maize (called chicha), wove fine wool tapestries  and made wooden, stone, and gold, silver and copper objects. The Inca were organized along a complex hierarchical and hereditary lineage system called the ayllu system. Ayllus ranged in size from a few hundred to tens of thousands of people, and they governed access to such things as land, political roles, marriage, and ritual ceremonies. Among other important duties, ayllus took maintenance and ceremonial roles involving the preservation and care of honored mummies of the ancestors of their communities. The only written records about the Inca that we can read today are documents from the Spanish conquistadors of Francisco Pizarro. Records were kept by the Inca in the form of knotted strings called quipu (also spelled khipu or quipo). The Spanish reported that historical records—particularly the deeds of the rulers—were sung, chanted, and painted on wooden tablets as well. Timeline and Kinglist The Inca word for ruler was capac, or capa, and the next ruler was chosen both by heredity and by marriage lines. All of the capacs were said to be descended from the legendary Ayar siblings (four boys and four girls) who emerged from the cave of Pacaritambo. The first Inca capac,  the Ayar sibling Manco Capac, married one of his sisters and founded  Cusco. The ruler at the height of the empire was Inca Yupanqui, who renamed himself Pachacuti (Cataclysm) and ruled between AD 1438-1471. Most scholarly reports list the date of the Inca empire as beginning with Pachacutis rule. High-status women were called coya and how well you could succeed in life depended to a degree on the genealogical claims of both your mother and father. In some cases, this led to sibling marriage, because the strongest connection you could have would be if you were the child of two descendants of Manco Capac. The dynastic king list which follows was reported by the Spanish chroniclers such as  Bernabà © Cobo  from oral history reports and, to a degree, it is somewhat under debate. Some scholars believe that there was actually a dual kingship, each king ruling half of Cusco; this is a minority viewpoint. Calendrical dates for the reigns of the various kings were established by Spanish chroniclers based on oral histories, but they are clearly miscalculated and so are not included here (some reigns supposedly lasted over 100 years). Dates included below are those for  capacs  that were personally remembered by the Inca informants to the Spanish. Kings Manco Capac (principal wife his sister Mama Occlo) ca. AD 1200 (founded  Cusco)Sinchà ­ Roca (principal wife Manco Sapaca)Lloque Ypanqui (p.w. Mama Cora)Mayta Capac (p.w. Mama Tacucaray)Capac YupanquiInca RocaYahuar HuacacViracocha Inca (p.w. Mama Rondocaya)Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui (p.w. Mama Anahuarqui, built the  Coricancha  and  Machu Picchu, reformed Inca society) [ruled AD 1438-1471], royal estates at Pisac,  Ollantaytambo  and Machu PicchuTopa Inca (or Tupac Inca or Topa Inca Yupanqui) (principal wife his sister Mama Occlo, first capac considered supernatural in his lifetime) [AD 1471-1493], royal estates at Chinchero and  ChoquequiraoHuayna Capac [AD 1493-1527], royal estates at Quespiwanka and Tombebamba[civil war between Huascar and Atahuallpa 1527]Huascar [AD 1527-1532]Atahuallpa [AD 1532](Inca conquered by Pizarro in 1532)Manco Inca [AD 1533]Paullu Inca Classes of Incan Society The kings of the Inca society were called  capac. Capacs could have multiple wives, and often did. Inca nobility (called  Inka) were mostly hereditary positions, although special persons could be assigned this designation.  Curacas  were administrative functionaries and bureaucrats. Caciques  were agricultural community leaders, responsible for maintenance of agricultural fields and tribute payment. Most of the society was organized into  ayllus, who were taxed and received domestic goods according to the size of their groups. Chasqui  were message runners who were essential to the Inca system of government. Chasqui traveled along the  Inca road system  stopping at outposts or  tambos  and  were said to be able to send a message 250 kilometers in one day  and to make the distance from Cusco to Quito (1500 km) within one week. After death, the  capac,  and his wives (and many of the highest officials) were mummified and kept by his descendants. Important Facts Alternate names:  Inca, Inka, Tahuantinsuyu or Tawantinsuyu (the four parts together in Quechua)Population:  Estimates widely accepted by Inca scholars range between six and 14 million within an area extending from Colombia to Chile, in 1532 when the Spanish arrived.State language:  Inca rulers adopted a form of Quechua for their administrative language  and doing so spread it into outlying areas of their empire, but the Inca incorporated many different cultures and their languages. The Inca called their form of Quechua runasimi or mans speech.Writing system:  The Inca apparently kept accounts and perhaps historical information using a  quipu, a system of knotted and dyed string; according to the Spanish, the Inca also chanted and sang historical legends and painted wooden tablets.Ethnographic sources:  Lots of ethnographic sources are available about the Inca, primarily Spanish military leaders and priests who were interested in conquering the Inca. These texts are var iously useful and often quite biased. Some few examples include  Bernabà © Cobo, Historia del Nuevo Mundo 1653, and Relacion de las huacas, among many other reports;  Garcilaso de la Vega, 1609; Diez Gonzalez Holguin, 1608; anonymous Arte y vocabulario en la lengua general del Peru, 1586; Santo Tomas, 1560; Juan Perez Bocanegra, 1631; Pablo Joseph de Arriaga, 1621; Cristobal de Albornoz, 1582 Economics Intoxicants:  Coca, chicha (maize  beer)Markets:  A widespread trade network facilitated by open marketsCultivated crops:  Cotton, potatoes,  maize, quinoaDomesticated animals:  Alpaca,  llama,  guinea pigTribute  was paid to Cusco in goods and services; tribute tallies were kept on quipu and an annual census was kept including the number of deaths and birthsLapidary arts:  ShellMetallurgy:  Silver, copper, tin and to a lesser extent gold were cold-hammered, forged, and air-annealedTextiles:  Wool (alpaca and  llama) and cottonAgriculture:  When necessary in the steep Andean terrain, the Inca built terraces with a gravel base and stepped retaining walls, to drain excess water and allow water flow from the terrace tread to the next terrace downslope. Architecture Construction techniques used by the Inca included fired adobe mud bricks, roughly shaped stones interspersed with mud mortar, and large, finely shaped stones coated with mud and clay finishing. The shaped stone architecture (sometimes called pillow-faced) is among the finest in the world, with large stones sanded into tight jigsaw like patterns. The pillow-faced architecture was reserved for temples, administrative structures and royal residences like Machu Picchu.Many Inca military installations and other public architecture were constructed throughout the empire, at sites such as Farfà ¡n (Peru), Qara Qara and Yampara (Bolivia), and Catarpe and Turi (Chile).The Inca Road  (Capaq Ñan or Gran Ruta Inca) was built connecting the empire  and included some 8500 kilometers of major thoroughfare crossing fifteen distinct ecosystems. 30,000 kilometers of subsidiary trails branch off the main road, including the Inca Trail, which is the part that leads from Cusco to Machu Picchu. Religion Ceque system: a system of shrines and ritual pathways radiating out from the capital city of Cusco. Emphasis on ancestor worship and fictive kinship structures (ayllus).Capacocha ceremony: a state event that involved the sacrifice of objects, animals and sometimes children.Burials:  The Inca dead were mummified and placed in open sepulchers so that they could be disinterred for important annual ceremonies and other rituals.Temples/shrines  known as huacas included both built and natural structures Sources: Adelaar, W. F. H.2006  Quechua. In  Encyclopedia of Language Linguistics. Pp. 314-315. London: Elsevier Press.Covey, R. A. 2008  Multiregional Perspectives on the Archaeology of the Andes During the Late Intermediate Period (c. A.D. 1000–1400).  Journal of Archaeological Research  16:287–338.Kuznar, Lawrence A. 1999 The Inca Empire: Detailing the complexities of core/periphery interactions. Pp. 224-240 in  World-Systems Theory in Practice: Leadership, production, and exchange, edited by P. Nick Kardulias. Rowan and Littlefield: Landham.McEwan, Gordon. 2006  The Incas: New Perspectives.  Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. Online book. Accessed May 3, 2008.